Studies In The Theory Of Emotional Development

Studies In The Theory Of Emotional Development The maturational processes and the facilitating environment: Studies in the theory of emotional development written by Donald W. Winnicott is a fundamental book, which is created from collection of his published and unpublished papers on psychoanalysis and child development between years of 1926-1964. The book informs the readers about the maturation process of a human being step by step from early childhood to adolescence stage. The main theme of this book dates back to Freuds theories to infancy. Winnicott mostly based his discussions on Freuds basic concepts and he had taken Freuds concepts as the frame of his references, however Winnicott did not based his discussions on Freudian concept. Through out the paper, it is observed that the ideas were based on between Winnicotts and Freuds ideas on maturational processes (Winnicott, 1965). In this astonishing collection, Dr. Winnicott analyses the maturational processes in three phases of developmental approach, theoretical approach an d the technique in depth. The book is scripted in a straightforward language that people who are new to psychoanalytic study can benefit from its virtue. Furthermore, the aim of this review is to elaborate on theory of maturational processes in emotional development by analyzing Winnicotts theories in support of different theories at of different theorists who studies the emotional development likewise. In order to accomplish this task, first the author and his theory will be introduced briefly. Subsequently, theories of other theorists will be presented and discussed in depth in order to contemplate the likeliness of maturational processes of human being and psychoanalytical therapy session. The Author Donald W. Winnicott (1896-1971), Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and psychoanalyst received his first analysis from James Strachey. Before this event, in 1919 he read Freud in Brills translation of The Interpretation of Dreams. Strachey was attentive to Winnicotts interest in children and child analysis by encouraging him to research about Melanie Klein. Afterwards, he had become Kleins student and spent several years as her supervisee. Way to understand Winnicott, goes from Klein since Klein had pointed out the missing parts from Freuds theory, the emotional development. His accomplishments of working with infants and children clinically, gave rise to psychoanalytic field, and led him to become the second important person after Klein in British Object Relations School. (Phillips, 1988, pp.153-154; Levine, 2006; Winnicott, 1971, pp.7-10). Winnicotts original ideas had differed from Kleinians. According to Rodman, Winnicott differed from others since he was in close contact with mother and infants. He, also, described that Winnicotts conflict with Kleininas was a turning point in his life, which led him to develop the theory of True Self (Levine, 2006). Winnicott had published over two hundred papers and many valuable books including Through Paediatrics to Psychanalysis (1958), Therapeutic Consultations in Child Psychiatry (1971), The Piggle (1977), Play and Reality (1971) (Phillips, 1988, pp.153-154; Levine, 2006; Winnicott, 1971, pp.7-10). Play and Reality, one of his well known books, is improved version of his paper Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena (1951), which discusses the importance of transitional stage in an individuals life, and intense experiences that take place in art, religion and fantasy world. Lastly, Winnicott refers to this book the most (Winnicott, 1971, p.15). When Winnicotts differentiation from Klein observed, one can assume that this process is Winnicotts transitional phenomena from his supervisor to become an independent theorist. Brief summary of the book Part One: Papers on Development Winnicott starts off the book from collection of papers on development. First, he explains the importance of the psycho-analysis and sense of guilt by stating A psycho-analyst comes to the subject of guilt as one who is in the habit of thinking in terms of growth, in terms of the evolution of the human individual, the individual emotional growth (Winnicott, 1965, p.15). Afterwards, Winnicott continues stating by sense of guilt is visible when the child enters to Oedipal Stage, since unconsciously the child is wishing his/her same sex parent to disappear and accordingly feelings of love and hate rises in this stage. After this stage, child enters to Superego and ego comes in terms with the superego, leaving anxiety to mature into guilt. Winnicott states that at this stage, child would feel sense of guilt related to masturbation. He continues by describing the individuals who acquired guilt feeling might suffer from melancholia and obsessional neurosis. The origin of guilt feeling aris es from Oedipus complex, when the child starts to experience three way relationship (mother, father and child). Next, Winnicott continues with the term capacity to be alone which is highly related with emotional development of an individual. It is basically experience of being alone in presence of another person, which helps children to build up his/her ego and contributes to build individuals personality. Winnicott includes the importance of parent and child relationship by defining the holding environment. The infant is dependent to holding environment where the mother holds the infant physically, emotionally and in her mind. Following the mother and the infant will live together. The child is now a psychosomatic (psyche indwelling in the soma) being on its own. He sees all the objects, including his mother, as outside of himself. At this stage, the childs ego moves on from the state of unintegration to integration and now he has gained the capacity to develop object relations. In other words, he has now passed on from a subjectively designed object to an on objectively perceived object rela tionship, which the infant can live with the father and mother together. Winnicott includes that the infant development should facilitated by good-enough maternal care in order for infant to survive. He continues stating that it can be said that infants ego is weak, however strengthen by his mothers ego. Further on, Winnicott states the importance for child to experience full dependency, relative dependency and independence, in order to integrate the ego. He includes the importance of ego strength that receives ego-support from the mothers adaptive behaviour and love. Accordingly, Winnicott articulates the relation of needs of children to those of infants in health and crisis. Additionally, he points out the importance of the relationship between childcare that is provided by healthcare providers versus natural care that is supplied by the parents. Correspondingly, Winnicott discussed the development of the capacity for concern in children. His statement was concern was assumes to belong to the stage that is prior to Oedipus complex. The capacity for concern was part of two body relationship, between the mother and the infant. In order the infant to experience guilt or hold it in full expectation of an opportunity to reparation, he needs to develop capacity for concern. Following this paper, Winnicott discussed infants growth from dependence towards independence. There are three categories in this issue. The first one is absolute dependence, which is the early stage of emotional development. The infant is dependent on the mothers womb and care from the beginning. In this section Winnicott states that This term maturational process refers to evolution of the ego and of the self, and includes the whole story of the id, of instincts and their vicissitudes, and of defences in the ego relative to instinct (Winnicott, 1965). In this state, the mothers go through a phase called primary maternal preoccupation where the mothers are preoccupied with the care of their baby starting from the last few weeks of pregnancy and couple of weeks after the birth. Their babies seem part of them and they are identified with the baby. Accordingly, the mothers know how their baby feels like or what their baby needs. In this situation, the mother herself is dependent. The n ext step is relative dependence where the infant is aware of the presence of dependence. In order to explain this phase, Winnicott stated that when the mother is away for a moment beyond the time-span of his (or her) capacity to believe in her survival, anxiety appears, and this is the first sign that the infant knows. The last step is infants journey to towards independence. Once the child passed the both phases normally, he/she will become eligible to meet with world and its hardships, since he/she will be able to observe what is already present in his(her own self. Lastly, this stage explains the attempts of the toddler child and of the child at puberty. Part Two: Theory and Technique In the second part Winnicott, dedicated himself informing the readers about the theories of child psychology and the techniques that is used in child psychoanalysis. Winnicott starts with contributions of direct child observation to psycho-analysis. According to Winnicotts direct observation, the baby must have a physical and psychological maturity in order to have a full emotional development. When these phenomena take place in psychoanalysis the analyst cannot date when it occurred. However, the analyst will be able to describe to patients early infancy. Furthermore, infants play become acknowledge in process of analysis. Play includes the personal growth of through imagination. Winnicotts foremost crucial theory is transitional object and phenomena. In this phase, the normal developing baby adopts a piece of cloth or a teddy bear. For a while the child will subject this object to himself; he will carry it with him all the time and wants to have full possession of the object. Therefore, according to Winnicott, starting from infancy, the mother should tolerate and allow the baby to besmear this object, to harm it, to ruin it. If the mother is wa shing this object, or cleaning it, or mending it or sewing it, she is breaking up and destroying something. What the mother is destroying is the meaning the baby attaches to the object and to what she is doing to the object. Winnicott explains that concentration of environmental phenomena in which crystallizes out a person (p.138), a mother, and within the mother the infant constitutes as anatomically and physically, later on at the birth date, the infant becomes a female or male individual. Winnicott states that there is no such thing as a newborn on its own, what you can see is the mother baby unity; which is called nursing couple. Where you find a baby you will find maternal care. At the beginning the baby exists only by means of the maternal care with whom the baby forms a whole. This care period is before the verbal period. The baby does not talk, in this period which is prior to presenting the baby with word symbols, the relationship between the mother and the baby is a maternal empathy. The baby is completely dependent and with what he receives from this dependency his ego develops and he paves the way for the construction of a separate self. When assumed that the development progressed normally w ith good enough initiation, true self operates steady and protects the being from the false self. False self is described as the breakdown of the childs illusion of omnipotence by the mothers non-empathetic replies at early period results in serious psychopathological consequences. A child in such a situation will gradually develop a false self. He will give up his needs and demands and will quickly try to form himself according to the demands and expectations of the mother or others. He will observe himself and his surroundings all the time and trying to assess reality, he will be inclined to present a superficial concordance. The real self which has not developed, will be enveloped, encapsulated and hidden by false self. Real self is the source of needs and expressions itself. False self, on the other hand, is a continuous activity in order to create the positive surroundings the environment has not provided one with. In analysis of a false personality, Winnicott describes, the fact must be recognized that the analyst can only talk to the False Self of the patient about the pat ients True Self (Winnicott, 1965, p.151). He continues stating that in point of transition, the analyst and the patient should be in extreme dependence, when the analyst starts to get into contact with the True Self. Winnicott discusses the importance of counter-transference within the therapy. Additionally, he stated the aim of psycho-analytical treatment is keeping alive, well, and awake. It is crucial to be aware of what, when, and how the patient states the certain statement or releases the emotion. Following, Winnicott discusses how to train for child psychiatry, since it is a different field than psychiatry that is applied to adults. Child psychiatry is involved with the emotional growth of the individual child and his/her maturational processes which is provided by his/her environment and the issues that derives from child him/herself. Accordingly, child psychiatry requires additional education of type which is provided by Psycho-Analysis and Analytical Psychology. Winnicott continues by stating the importance of psychotherapy of character disorders and he elaborates by discussing them in terms of maturational processes. Lastly, he concludes by stating the importance of dependence in infant-care, in child-care, and the psycho-analytic setting. The Critique of the book When the main issue is the maturational process, it is crucial to acknowledge Freuds theory since almost all of the theories stemmed from it. According to Freud, in infancy and childhood, the individuals anticipated concern is survival issues, which are experienced through nursing and the mothers activities with infants body, following infants fantasies about birth and death. Also, the infant will experience these issues through the sexual bond with its parents. Later on the infant will experience, pleasure principle where he/she demands all of his/her needs to be accomplished immediately (id). With reality principle, the infant realizes some gratifications are that problematic, however the infant will realize it is worth to wait for them (ego) (McWilliams, 1994; Mitchell Black, 1995). Freuds drive theory states that the child will go through psychosexual stages of oral, anal, phallic and latency stage (where superego develops). Therewithal, Winnicott values the theories of Freud an d based the fundamental of his theories from his. However, Freud states that patients problems stems from secrets, gaps in memory, while Winnicott believes that the patient is shaping and molding the analytic situation to provide the environmental features missed in childhood (Mitchell Black, 1995, 133-134). According to my observation, even though Winnicott had developed a different style of maturational processes than Freuds, still he based his ideas on his drive theory. Freuds maturational processes of emotional development reciprocate my idea of maturation, since the stages are apprised when the children are observed from the frame of drive theory. Accordingly, I believe that Winnicotts stages of theory builds up on Freuds maturational stages with addition of mother-infant relationship reinforcement. The dedicated theorists, Klein and Anna Freud, had different theories which concerned technical problems with regard to analyzing. Klein believed that children were analysable as long as their play was interpreted, while Anna Freud argued that small children are not analysable since they have weak ego and they cannot handle interpretations. (Mitchell Black, 1995). Klein s play technique of child analysis, which the child is offered with simple toys that represents his fantasy life (Klein, 1975). On the other hand A.Freud states that since Superego is the heir of the Oedipus Complex, the pre-oedipal child will be unable to obtain internal controls of his own erotic and aggressive impulses. Even though, Winnicott was influenced by Kleins theory, he still acknowledged A.Freuds view of giving importance of the childs actual parents. On the other hand, Klein was insufficiently respectful of the role of parents and concentrated on childs internal world of fantasy to the exclusion of exter nal factors (Phillips, 1988). However, Winnicotts benefaction to psychoanalytic theory was formulated to re-introduce the importance of the real mother in development. He gives the mother a relatively passive role, at least from the infants point of view (Katz, 1996). Winnicott believes that there is not only an infant there is a nursing couple between mother and the infant. When I think of these theories, I also, believe psychoanalysis cannot be applied to the children. I support Kleins the play technique, however I believe that children are not ready to hear the interpretations, since they have not accomplished all of the developmental stages as A.Freud stated. Additionally, I disagree with Kleins point of view of excluding parents, when working with children. Since the care of the mother and the environment is crucial in childrens development, I think parents contribution to the therapy session will be meaningful as Winnicott stated. Stern disagrees on the existence of developmental stages as other theorists do. Stern makes an attempt to free infancy and psychoanalysis from predisposition of adult psychopathology. His position is that the infants from the start mainly experience the reality and their subjective experiences without suffering distortion or defences (Downey, 1988). In contrary of Winnicotts developmental stages, Stern uses for senses of self, which are emergent self, the core self, the subjective self and the verbal self. According to Erten (2010), Stern emphasizes the importance of sense of subjective self as the crucial steps of development of the child. Erten states that, according to Stern I think, Stern was influenced by Winnicotts theory of mother-infant relationship and applied to his own theory. In Sterns system the mother and the infant are in a dual relationship, in other words in sync. Stern (1985), and A. Freud (1965) were influenced by Winnicot (1971)s transitional object and phenomenon by describing the importance of having a soft substance in process of differentiating from the mother. However, Sterns view on this phenomenon is different than Winnicotts. Winnicott believes that it is crucial for child to be left alone with the transitional object whereas Stern states it is normal for mother to enter infants play in this stage is normal and she should encourage the infant play with the transitional object. Once the infant gets acquainted with the toy, he/she should be left alone. He states that it is beneficial for development of self-regulation (Stern, 1985). Additionally, Erten (2010) includes that the child will start to take a journey from his inner world to external world as he will travel from subjectivity to objectivity. I think that Winnicotts opinion seems more logical, since the transitional object should be an object that will help the child to differ entiate from his mother in order to take steps in the journey of becoming an individual. I think that transitional object would replace the pleasure that the child is receiving from the mother until the child gets acquainted to his new situation. Erten (2010) within Winnicotts holding theory; the environmental mother will witness the child, through out his development by holding the child mentally. The mother will stand besides her childs existence and will have an optimal dance with her child. By optimal dance, Winnicott meant that the mother will stand by her childs side, while not abusing her childs existence by interrupting him. In another words, the child should live his loneliness in presence of his mother. In my opinion, this optimal dance is similar to Sterns idea of affect attunement. Affect attunement is described below: When the infant is around nine months old, however, one begins to see the mother add a new dimension to her imitation-like behavior, a dimension that appears to be geared to the infants new status as a potentially intersubjective partner. (It is not clear how mothers know this change has occurred in the infant; it seems to be part of their intuitive parental sense.) She begins to expand her behavior beyond true imitation into a new category of behavior we will call affect attunement (Stern, 1985, p. 140). In Sterns theory, the mother follows the affect and behavior of her child in a compatible manner, while in Winnicotts theory, the mother watches over her child without interrupting his being but still keeping a compatible manner mentally. Additionally, Erten (2010) was able relate Winnicotts concept of capacity to be alone with Bowlbys attachment theory. He stated that the individual can form relationship which is free from separation anxiety, if he/she was able to securely attach to his mother in infancy stage. Erten continues by stating the infant who formed insecure attachment will be alone in both cases of when the mother departures (the baby is left alone) and when the mother arrives since he/she ignores the arrival of the mother due to her departure. The reason is as the object leaves (the mother), the baby feels abandoned in his/her subjective world and the anxiety will be stimulated according to frequency of mothers departure. I strongly agree with Winnicotts and Ertens statements since the concept of capacity to be alone is also a way for child to relax in his own time. Accordingly, I believe that the child will learn to soothe himself without requiring someones attention. Conclusion In the book, The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment: Studies in the Theory of Emotional Development, Winnicott informs the readers about the developmental theory ranging from early childhood to adolescence, while he explains the crucial theories that contribute the emotional development of the individual. He concludes the collection by narrating the differences between child and adult psychiatry styles, while he states the possible psychiatric disorders that might stem from infantile maturational processes. The book consisted from the collection of Winnicotts various papers. Winnicott, a former Kleinian, began to separate from Klein as he started to form his own theory by observing infant-mother relationship. By focusing on this two-body relationship and basing on Sigmund Freuds drive theory and nourishing his theories from Kleins and A.Freuds opinions, Winnicott formed different and useful theories about emotional development of individual. Unlike other theorists, Winnicott begins his theory starting from pregnancy period, when the baby is in the womb, instead of starting from the birth. He values the first relationship of mother-infant, the dependency period, immensely. Winnicott, rarely mentions the fathers role in his theories. Winnicott, also, emulates infant-mother relationship with patient-therapist relationship. When it is considered, the concepts that he mentioned can be visible in therapeutic session. Such as, the patients prefer to have capacity to be alone and experience going on being state by being silent in the therapy room. On the other hand, the therapist maintains a holding environment by not interrupting the patient, by being by his side. Finally, Winnicotts current book of collection is a well rounded, detailed book which captures the reader and provokes spirit as the reader dives into the book. The new students of psychoanalysis and pupils who wants to be psychotherapist must read this book in order to apprehend the full journey of individuals maturational processes.

William Sherman :: essays research papers

William Sherman How would you feel if your brother came into your room and transformed it into a junkyard? You would probably have the same feelings of the civilians in Georgia when William Sherman came across their land. William Sherman was hated by most Southerners and favored by many generals from the North because if his brilliant war tactic. William Sherman was born on May 8, 1820 in Lancaster, Ohio. But according to the American History Encyclopedia, he was born on February 8 of that year. His father died when he was child, and his mother couldn’t afford to raise him so she sent him to be raised by Thomas Ewing, his father’s friend. He soon married Mr. Ewing’s daughter, Ellan. William Sherman attended the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, and graduated 6th in his class in 1840. During the Mexican War, he was an unpopular soldier in California because he had little combat experiences. He resigned from the army in September 6, 1853, and became partner in a banking firm in San Francisco and New York. Years before the Civil War started, William Sherman was superintendent of the Louisiana State Seminary and Military Academy at Alexandria; which later was moved and renamed to Louisiana State University (LSU). When the war broke out, Sherman felt adverse with the newspapermen in Louisiana, so he moved b ack to his hometown for two months. His family then migrated to St. Louis, Missouri where he was elected president of the Fifth Street Railroad. On his forty-first birthday, Sherman wrote to the Union Secretary of War offering his service in the military for three years. On June 20, 1861, he joined Mc. Dowel’s army and fought in the First Battle of Bull Run, the first battle in which the Union lost to the Confederate. In August of 1861, William Sherman was promoted to Brigadier General and was elected by General Robert Anderson to defend Fort Sumter. A month later, Sherman told the Secretary of War, Cameron, that if he had 60,000 men he would drive the enemy out of Kentucky and if he had 200,000 men he would finish the war in that section. Many newspaper writers humiliated William Sherman because Cameron returned to Washington and reported that Sherman required 200,000 men. Sherman didn’t get a large number of army as he wished, but he was placed command of the Fifth Division, which was an average size army seizing Tennessee.

Participation in Unit Discussion Boards for Academic Purposes Essay

Technology has currently changed the way people live in that it has made living and communicating easier for them. One of the most significant contributions that technology has given is the Internet. It has allowed people from all over the globe to communicate without the use of wires and without having to exert too much effort. More importantly, it has improved the way academic institutions provide education to their students. The Internet has given way for â€Å"virtual universities,† which â€Å"exists in the digital reality of the Internet, although it would also need to have extensions in physical reality for assessment purposes, which could provide optional experiences in situated learning† (Tiffin & Rajasingham, 2003, p. 136). There are numerous ways on how students and instructors communicate to make distance-learning work. These would include electronic mail, instant messaging, live teleconferencing, specific platforms designed for educational purposes, and discussion boards. Tools like these make it possible for students and teachers to exchange information even if they are miles apart. It gives them the capability to be flexible in terms of their schedule and workload. It also lessens the cost that they have to shoulder for their education compared to that of traditional education because they do not have to spend money on commuting to and from the university’s campus. â€Å"The promise of the Internet for education was the interactivity of the medium that allowed the students to interact and actively participate in any learning process† (Shimojo, Ischii, Ling, & Song, 2005, p. 87). As mentioned earlier, one of the tools that virtual classrooms use is the discussion board, which is an â€Å"asynchronous communication tool that allows one individual to post a comment or question online. Other individuals who are members of the same discussion board may read that comment/question, and respond with their own remarks over time† (Virginia Tech, n. d. ). Only students and their instructors have access to this site. Instructors may create the discussion boards for their overall course or for a certain topic so that the students are able to communicate and share information in a place where posts are organized and can be tracked and monitored. Discussion boards are beneficial to both students and teachers because it allows them to discuss topics more extensively through the aid of the Internet. It would also extend and maximize the time that they need to talk about their lessons and other concerns, as class time is sometimes not enough to cover everything. Discussion boards provide the opportunity for every student to participate actively in the discussion with the chance of receiving comment and feedbacks not only from the instructor but also from the other students. Most of all, discussion boards can be constantly accessed and has the ability to store conversations as is, unless it is deleted by the moderator or instructor who controls the board most of the time. However, because discussion boards are powered by the Internet and technology, it also has its limitations. Although this rarely happens nowadays, power failure can limit the students and teachers’ capabilities of interacting through the discussion board. Also, students who do not own a personal computer of their own might find it difficult to join in the discussion on a regular basis. There are also those who are afraid of using technology and will rather communicate personally than use the Internet. Students may also fear miscommunication and misunderstanding, which would lead to conflicts either with other students or with their instructors. â€Å"Misinterpretations may go unresolved or may take several communications before they are resolved† (French, French, Hale, Johnson, & Farr, 1999, p. 145). As such, students might not fully appreciate discussion boards and will ultimately have a negative effect on their learning. If students choose other Internet-based educational tools over the discussion board, they may not be able to maximize the full potential that virtual classrooms or universities can offer. Although they would still be able to communicate and interact through other means, they would not have the comfort of having their messages and posts arranged chronologically and stored in a safe place over a period of time. Not participating in a discussion board would also mean that the students and teachers would have to wait for the class to virtually meet again to discuss their concerns further. However, this would take up the actual class time and some instructors would choose to teach than discuss concerns, which means that students may not be able to talk about other things and interact with each other. Active participation and support for discussion boards, therefore, are needed for virtual classrooms to be effective. They can be encouraged through incentives like a reward for having the best post or comment in the discussion. Instructors should also think of interesting topics to discuss so that the students do not get bored and opt to stay out of the interaction. Also, instructors should require their students to regularly post content and comment on other people’s work. Indeed, technology has proven to be one of best innovation that man has ever seen. This is especially appreciated in the field of education because it has allowed people to receive education even at the comfort of their homes. It has allowed people from different countries of different backgrounds to share information and knowledge with each other. Classes are not limited to their schedules because students can still discuss their concerns over the Internet even after class hours. Different tools are provided to students to maximize their learning process. Discussion boards should be supported and used because it is one of the best Internet-based educational tools that they can use in virtual classrooms. References French, D. , French, H. , Hale, C. , Johnson, C. , & Farr, G. (1999). Internet Based Learning. Virginia: Stylus Publishing, LLC. Shimojo, S. , Ischii, S. , Ling, T. W. , & Song, K. (2005). Web and Communication Technologies and Internet-Related Social Issues. New York: Birkhauser. Tiffin, J. & Rajasingham, L. (2003). The Global Virtual University. New York: RoutledgeFalmer. Virginia Tech. (n. d. ). Discussion Boards. Retrieved February 17, 2009, from http://www. edtech. vt. edu/edtech/id/ocs/discuss. html

Meaning of Mae in Japanese

Mae is a Japanese word that means the front, or presence. Learn more about its meanings and usage in the Japanese language below. Pronunciation Click here to listen to the audio file. Meaning the front; presence; ago; before Japanese Characters å‰  (㠁 ¾Ã£ Ë†) Example Translation Sono hanashi wa mae nimo kiita yo!㠁 Ã£  ®Ã¨ © ±Ã£  ¯Ã¥â€° Ã£  «Ã£â€šâ€šÃ¨ Å¾Ã£ â€žÃ£ Å¸Ã£â€šË†Ã£â‚¬â€š or in English: I heard the story before!

White Discomfort and Black Lives - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1175 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/04/02 Category Society Essay Level High school Topics: Black Lives Matter Essay Did you like this example? White Discomfort and Black Lives If you have been watching the news, browsing social media, or tuning in to your local radio stations, you may have heard about what seems to be an influx of white people in America calling 911 on black people who are doing nothing more than existing while black. Though this seems like a new trend meant to put people who seem out of place in their place, this is nothing new. Especially to the victims who have authorities called on them for doing nothing more than trying to exist in a world that isnt always welcoming to that. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "White Discomfort and Black Lives" essay for you Create order From simply cooking out in designated areas in a park, to a child exiting a corner store with his mother, false accusations and modern day Black Codes enforced against people of color, especially black people in America are not only inconvenient and wrong, but dangerous. Police brutality has been a hot topic across the nation and putting black people in situations where they can be harmed, or even worst, killed, when no crime has been committed should be considered a hate crime. Allowing people to continue to get away with tying up emergency lines and utilizing them as their own customer service line to voice their displeasure when they believe that white comfort is more important than black lives is not a reflection of liberty and justice for all. America does not have the most beautiful beginning. There has been racial tension and separation of people by race from the very beginning. Simply put, racism is defined as power plus prejudice (Ponds). Though many may say one race does not have more power than another in America, that is simply untrue. There are disparities between the way officials and authorities respond to white and non-white Americans. Officers are more likely to side with white people over black people because implicit biases make them believe white people are more trustworthy. Half of black people in Americans surveyed by the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public health said they had experienced racial discrimination at the hands of police officers (Neel). This isnt surprising due to the racist origin of the police force in America. From tracking and kidnaping of runaway slaves to the intervention and dismantling of necessary civil rights movements, historically, the police force has enforced laws to hinder the progression of civil rights movements in minority communities (7 Racial Bias and Disparities in Proactive Policing). Many of these encounters did not end in pleasant and peaceful dismantling. They were violent. They ended in lives being taken and families being destroyed because the majority deemed the minority had no rights or did not belong. (Beer) History tends to repeat itself, and here we are in 2018 still having the police called on black people in our country for existing. If crimes were being committed there would be a need for police intervention, however barbecuing, parking, waiting in Starbucks, leaving a bodega, and planting in your community garden are not crimes. Discomfort based on implicit biases should not lead to potentially dangerous police interactions. Black people are only 13% of the American population however they account for over 20% of police killings. Almost double the rate of the general population, even when nonviolent and unarmed (Beer). Rashon Nelson and Donte Robinson entered a Starbucks and had been there for only a few minutes when the police were called on them for not ordering quickly enough, even though Starbucks is known to be a communal gathering place for people to chat and utilize free Wi-Fi, whether they ordered anything or not. This resulted in a lawsuit against the city of Philadelphia where the young men settled out of court and Starbucks closed their stores for an entire day for a training on racial biases and discrimination. Lolade Sinyonbola fell asleep in the lounge at Yale, where she is a graduate after working on what she described as a marathon of papers. She was awakened by police telling her an individual felt she did not belong. Police did acknowledge she was a student at the institution and the issue was not a police matter. Three teens in St. Louis were greeted by authorities after shopping in Nordstrom. Police searched the teens, their bags, and their car, eventually letting them go after verifying their receipts. Nordstrom Racks president issued a statement and apology noting that protocol was not followed in relation to the situation with said teens. In California three black Airbnb guests had the police called on them for not waving at or greeting neighbors as they would have liked for them too. This resulted in a helicopter coming to the scene and the guests being questioned and embarrassed. Airbnb describes the event as unconscionable (Victor). A community activist and non profit owner in Detroit lost several contracts, money, and even his credibility due to false claims from the individuals in a neighborhood where he had started a community garden. Marc Peoples had the police called on him dozens of times for allegations that he was stalking, vandalizing, and harassing the community. These calls came from the same three white women, over and over again. Once these allegations were taken to court (after Peoples had been arrested and forced to bond out for crimes he never committed) the judge ruled that the allegations were false after said women could not remember their stories and eventually admitted to exaggerating and fabricating stories because they deemed he did not belong. (Burch) These examples are few compared to the hundreds that happen every year. In each scenario there are no crimes being committed, just implicit biases leading to 911 being treated as customer service line instead of an emergency assistance line as it was intended. It leads wasted time, resources, and eventually money for companies and cities when lawsuits are added to the equation. The individuals affected by these microaggressions are left feeling hurt, embarrassed, and betrayed after these encounters. They begin losing credibility, jobs, and wages due to individuals policing their whereabouts simply because they have a different shade of skin. All of these situations could be avoided if we treated people who decide that they can police the lives of black people, by calling authorities on them, even when nothing is wrong, as the criminals in the situation. If an individual proceeds to disrupt the life of someone who is simply living while black, they should be charged with a hate crime because they allowed their implicit biases to waste city resources, cost companies money, and ruin lives of innocent individuals. Works Cited 7 Racial Bias and Disparities in Proactive Policing. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2018. . Beer, Todd. POLICE KILLING OF BLACKS: Data for 2015, 2016, 2017, and first half of 2018. 24 August 2018. 22 October 2018. . Burch, Audra D.S. How Gardening While Black Almost Landed This Detroit Man in Jail. 26 October 2019. . Neel, Joe. Poll: Most Americans Think Their Own Group Faces Discrimination. 24 October 2017. 22 October 2018. . Ponds, Kenneth T. Reclaiming Children and Youth. Bloomington (2013): 22-24. Victor, Daniel. When White People Call the Police on Black People. 11 May 2018. 22 October 2018. .

Perceptual Form Organization - 854 Words

Week 4 - Chapter 4 Review 1. Your visual receptors have begun to receive, translate, and transmit the contours of the letters on this exam to your brain. You are therefore engaged in the process of _____. a) selection b) organization c) reading d) sensation x 2. The key functions of sensation and perception are respectively: _____. a) stimulation and transduction b) transmission and coding c) detection and interpretation d) interpretation and transmission 3. When you first put your clothes on this morning you felt them on your skin, but within minutes you no longer noticed them. This is an example of _____. a) sensory accommodation b) sensory adaptation x c) habituation d) the fabric of your life 4. Pain†¦show more content†¦a) is presented during a person s motivational need state b) manipulates people without their knowing about it c) is presented below the threshold of a person s conscious awareness d) none of these options 11. Experiments on subliminal perception have _____. a) supported the existence of the phenomenon, but it has little or no effect on persuasion b) shown that subliminal perception occurs only among children and some adolescents c) shown that subliminal messsages affect only people who are highly suggestible d) failed to support the phenomenon 12. Your aiblity to raed thsi sntenece desipte its mnay mssipllengis is deu to ____. a) bottom-up processing b) integration c) top-down processing d) cognitive flexibility 13. Naomi and Karl have been corresponding over the internet. Karl wants her to attach a photograph of herself to her next message. Naomi wants Karl to find her attractive. Which of the following factors explains why she should send him a picture of herself alone, rather than one that includes her truly gorgeous roommate standing next to her? a) personal motivation b) expectation c) frame of reference d) all of these options 14. 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Capital gains Tax Historical Trends and Forecasting

Question: Discuss about the Capital gains Tax for Historical Trends and Forecasting. Answer: Introduction: Permanent establishment as defined under Subsection 6 (1) of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 states that a person, state of an authority, commonwealth or through which an individual carries on any business without limiting the generality of the foregoing. This includes a place where the person is carrying on a business through an agent or a place where the person is using or installing substantial equipment or substantial machinery. From the current study, it is evident that Alex Ran and Ryan Tan a resident of Singapore having its business in the same country looking forward to expand their business operations in Australia (Woellner et al., 2016). The study highlights that the brothers have also held a shares in ASX listed companies is Australia and intends to use the service of stockbroker, which they found online to sell the shares in order to raise capital for their enterprise. The ruling of the Permanent Establishment provides that it does not takes into the consideration a place where the person is involved in the business dealings through using the service of a bonfire commission agent or broker. The rulings provides that brokers who in relation to those dealings acts in the ordinary course of his or her business who does not receive any remuneration or otherwise than at the customary rate in relation to those dealings of that kind, not being a place where an individual otherwise carries on a business. It is noteworthy to denote that the rulings provided under Subsection 6 (1) of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 states that Alan Tan and Ryan Tan is looking to raise the capital through using a broker who will be negotiating and concluding the terms of contracts on behalf of the brothers (Snape De Souza, 2016). Hence, the use of various brokers by Alan Tan and Ryan Tan will not result in Permanent Establishment in Australia. Determination of tax implications for Melbourne and Cambrai operations: According to the concept of Australian Taxation Laws if an individual acquires a vacant land either for private use or for business purpose it is normally considered as capital assets and are subjected to capital gains tax. In the current study, Alan Tan and Ryan Tan bought the properties with the intention to subdivide the land into ten blocks. The abandoned land was subdivided further into two small blocks in order to raise money by selling the blocks and the remaining eight blocks for constructing townhouse. Hence, the income raised from the selling of the subdivided land should be considered as capital gains and any profit is generally treated as capital gains, which is subjected to capital gains. As stated under the ITAA 1936 subdivision of land does not necessary result in the CGT event unless an individual retains the ownership of the subdivided block of land. This in turn represents that an individual does not make capital gains or a capital loss during the time of subdivision. However, under the current case study of Alan and Ryan the initial intention was to make a capital gain from the sale of two subdivided block of land and this would constitute Permanent Establishment. On the other hand, the remaining eight blocks were used for townhouse which implies that the constructed properties were used for residential purpose and were also engaged in the profit-making activity of property renovation and is liable for CGT tax (Kania, 2013). Considering the tax implications regarding the context of the definition of Permanent Establishment it is evident that Subsection 6 (1) definition implied on acquisition and subdivision of land in context with the ITAA 1936. Determining the residency of brothers and tax implications: Australian resident are usually taxed on their income from all sources whereas a temporary resident of Australia along with the overseas resident they are usually taxed on their income sourced in Australia. In the current case study, it is evident that the anticipated time of stay for the brothers was eight months. According to the 183 days Statutory test an individual would be considered as an Australian resident if an individual has originally been in Australia continuously or intermittently for more than one half of the income year (David, 2013). The commissioner of tax is satisfied that that the individuals original place of dwelling was outside Australia and the individual does not intend to take up the permanent resident in Australia. As stated in the given case of FC of T v Jenkins 82 ATC 4068, where an office of bank was transferred from Australia to work in bank of New Hebrides office for a three-year term. However, depending upon the Applegate the time that he spent working in New Hebrides was the tax payers permanent place of abode rather than Australia. Hence, under the current study both the brothers spend more than one half of the Australian income year living in Australia which would be substantially regarded as more than the statutory period of 183 days (Zelinsky, 2016). Hence, they would be considered as a resident of Australia since the duration and continuity of their presence was greater than the one-half of the income year. Application of CGT rules with necessary calculations: Application of CGT rules on Sale of Shares: Shares in a company or units are treated in the same way compare to any other CGT assets. It is assumed that the shares are acquired by the brothers after 20 September 1985 and Capital Gains Tax is applicable on gains derived from the sale of shares or units on the occurrence of CGT event (Clark, 2014). Thus, under the current study it is observed that the brothers were engaged in the sale of shares with the help of broker and gains derived from such sale of shares or units are liable to be taxed under the CGT event. The shares were redeemed by switching them from one fund to another and received assessable payments as it involved involuntary change in ownership. Demolitions and construction of town houses and planned disposal of townhouse and beef business: As stated under the income tax assessment act 1936 if an individual is demolishing a house the cost base does not gets reduced because any losses suffered and can be increased by the cost of demolition. In the current study, it is observed that the vacant land was demolished to build up townhouse which was later sold off to raise money and the remaining blocks of townhouse was used for residential purpose (Althaus et al., 2012). Thus, when a property changes its form to being a business into a trading stocks would lead to the application of CGT and any profit made from such sale of such block of land would constitute Capital gains tax. On the other hand, improvement made on Cambrai property with the intention to re-establish in the form of commercial herd would represent a business venture and any profits derived from the business would be taxed as normal income. Cost Calculation of Fitzroy Project:- Particulars Amount Cost of Fitzroy Block $12,50,000 Brokerage Fees $16,000 Demolition Cost $37,000 Interest Cost per year $35,000 Cost of 10 Blocks $13,38,000 Cost of 2 Undeveloped Blocks $2,67,600 Cost of 6 Blocks $8,02,800 Add: Construction Cost $24,00,000 Total Cost of 6 Town Houses $32,02,800 Cost of Each Townhouse $5,33,800 Income tax implications on the disposal of townhouse: A house is usually exempted from tax unless an individual has an investment property which is build or renovated for disposal. Ryan and Alex bought the abandoned land with the intention to renovate for profit and using it as running a business, this attracts income tax implications with capital gains tax and goods and service tax (De Goede et al., 2016). Special CGT rules are applicable since both Ryan and Alex are foreign residential who ceases to be an Australian resident for taxation purpose. Analysis of Cambrai Operations: The Cambrai operations will be considered as business since the property was originally acquired with the intention of re-establishing it for commercial herd. This ultimately signifies that any profits derived from the business would be considered for income tax (Hegemann et al., 2015). However, on the event of suffering loss from carrying on the business of commercial herd such losses are subjected to be offset on gains made from commercial herd only. Non-resident Company Company Company Company Company Company Particulars 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22 Assessable Ordinary Income 0 0 $15,000 $2,50,000 $12,50,000 2000000 2150000 Less: Deductible Expenses Repairs 850000 850000 850000 850000 Depreciation on Capital Improvements 125000 250000 375000 500000 500000 500000 Interest Expenses 60000 60000 60000 60000 60000 60000 Net Ordinary Assessable Income 0 -1035000 -1145000 -1035000 -160000 1440000 1590000 Assessable Statutory Income: Sale Proceeding of Shares 1750000 Less: Cost of Shares -625000 Less: Brokerage -17500 Capital Gain Tax on Shares 1107500 Less: 50% Exemption 553750 Net Capital Gain Tax on Shares 553750 Sale Proceeding of Undeveloped Blocks 650000 Less: Cost of Undeveloped Blocks 267600 Net Capital Gain Tax on Undeveloped Blocks 382400 Sale Proceeding of 2 Townhouses 1600000 1600000 1600000 Less: Cost of 3 Townhouses 1067600 1067600 1067600 Capital Gain on 3 Townhouses 532400 532400 532400 Less: 50% Exemption 0 266200 266200 Net Capital Gain Tax on Townhouses 532400 266200 266200 TOTAL TAXABLE INCOME 553750 -1035000 -762600 -502600 106200 1706200 1590000 Tax on Taxable Income 230872.5 0 0 0 31860 511860 477000 Deductibility of interest incurred on contingency funding options: As stated under section 8-1of the income tax assessment act 1997 interest incurred on the contingency funding are the monies which is raised by Ryan and Alex through are deductible. The rulings specifically state that the payments are deductible under the positive limbs of section 8-1 of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1997 as an expense of generating income as opposed to the application of income generated (Mehrotra et al., 2013). Analysis of structure: From the study it is evident that the two brothers are not planning to consolidate both the units however it is better advised that a partnership form of control would add significant advantage with complete control over one property. It is further recommended that the interest of the property should be vested equally in each others control and trusteeship form of property management would constitute as an advantageous step forward in managing the ownership of land. To further justify the interest of beneficiaries an equal distribution of ownership would form an appropriate mode of holding equal rights on each property. Reference List: Althaus, C., Bridgman, P., Davis, G. (2012).The Australian policy handbook. Allen Unwin. Barkoczy, S. (2016). Foundations of Taxation Law 2016.OUP Catalogue. Burnett, C. (2015). When is a company incorporated outside Australia a resident of Australia?.Tax Specialist,18(5), 198. Clark, J. (2014). Capital gains tax: historical trends and forecasting frameworks.Economic Round-up, (2), 35. David Hughes. (2013).Corporate Residence. AC Black. De Goede, J., Kaur, D., Kosters, B., Perdelwitz, A. (2013). Interpretation and Application of Article 5 (Permanent Establishment) of the OECD Model Tax Convention: Response from IBFD Research Staff.Bulletin for International Taxation. Hegemann, A., Kunoth, A., Rupp, K., Sureth, C. (2015).Impact of capital gains taxation on the holding period of investments under different tax systems(No. 183). arqus-Arbeitskreis Quantitative Steuerlehre. Jones, D. (2016). Capital gains tax: The rise of market value?.Taxation in Australia,51(2), 67. Kania, B. (2013). Capital Gains Tax. InSteuerstandort Grobritannien(pp. 128-156). Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. Mehrotra, A. K., Ott, J. C. (2016). WE ARE WHAT WE TAXTHE CURIOUS BEGINNINGS OF THE CAPITAL GAINS TAX PREFERENCE.Fordham L. Rev.,84, 2517-2989. Newman, S. (2016). The new CGT withholding regime: More than meets the eye.Proctor, The,36(5), 18. Rowland, C. (2013). Statutory Will Applications: A Practical Guide by Richard Williams and Sam McCullough. Saad, N. (2014). Tax knowledge, tax complexity and tax compliance: Taxpayers view.Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,109, 1069-1075. Schellekens, M. (2015). European Tax Handbook 2015.Amsterdam: IBFD. Snape, J., De Souza, J. (2016).Environmental taxation law: policy, contexts and practice. Routledge. Taylor, G., Richardson, G. (2013). The determinants of thinly capitalized tax avoidance structures: Evidence from Australian firms.Journal of International Accounting, Auditing and Taxation,22(1), 12-25. Verikios, G., Patron, J., Gharibnavaz, R., Economics, K. P. M. G., Winston, A. (2016). OPTIONS FOR REFORMING AUSTRALIA'S GOODS AND SERVICES TAX. Woellner, R., Barkoczy, S., Murphy, S., Evans, C., Pinto, D. (2016).Australian Taxation Law 2016. Oxford University Press. Yong, S. E., Ma, M. (2015). A comparative study of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) implications on real property transactions in Australia and New Zealand. Zelinsky, E. A. (2016). Defining Residence for Income Tax Purposes: Domicile as Gap-Filler, Citizenship as Proxy and Gap-Filler.Michigan Journal of International Law,37.