Studies In The Theory Of Emotional Development

Studies In The Theory Of Emotional Development The maturational processes and the facilitating environment: Studies in the theory of emotional development written by Donald W. Winnicott is a fundamental book, which is created from collection of his published and unpublished papers on psychoanalysis and child development between years of 1926-1964. The book informs the readers about the maturation process of a human being step by step from early childhood to adolescence stage. The main theme of this book dates back to Freuds theories to infancy. Winnicott mostly based his discussions on Freuds basic concepts and he had taken Freuds concepts as the frame of his references, however Winnicott did not based his discussions on Freudian concept. Through out the paper, it is observed that the ideas were based on between Winnicotts and Freuds ideas on maturational processes (Winnicott, 1965). In this astonishing collection, Dr. Winnicott analyses the maturational processes in three phases of developmental approach, theoretical approach an d the technique in depth. The book is scripted in a straightforward language that people who are new to psychoanalytic study can benefit from its virtue. Furthermore, the aim of this review is to elaborate on theory of maturational processes in emotional development by analyzing Winnicotts theories in support of different theories at of different theorists who studies the emotional development likewise. In order to accomplish this task, first the author and his theory will be introduced briefly. Subsequently, theories of other theorists will be presented and discussed in depth in order to contemplate the likeliness of maturational processes of human being and psychoanalytical therapy session. The Author Donald W. Winnicott (1896-1971), Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and psychoanalyst received his first analysis from James Strachey. Before this event, in 1919 he read Freud in Brills translation of The Interpretation of Dreams. Strachey was attentive to Winnicotts interest in children and child analysis by encouraging him to research about Melanie Klein. Afterwards, he had become Kleins student and spent several years as her supervisee. Way to understand Winnicott, goes from Klein since Klein had pointed out the missing parts from Freuds theory, the emotional development. His accomplishments of working with infants and children clinically, gave rise to psychoanalytic field, and led him to become the second important person after Klein in British Object Relations School. (Phillips, 1988, pp.153-154; Levine, 2006; Winnicott, 1971, pp.7-10). Winnicotts original ideas had differed from Kleinians. According to Rodman, Winnicott differed from others since he was in close contact with mother and infants. He, also, described that Winnicotts conflict with Kleininas was a turning point in his life, which led him to develop the theory of True Self (Levine, 2006). Winnicott had published over two hundred papers and many valuable books including Through Paediatrics to Psychanalysis (1958), Therapeutic Consultations in Child Psychiatry (1971), The Piggle (1977), Play and Reality (1971) (Phillips, 1988, pp.153-154; Levine, 2006; Winnicott, 1971, pp.7-10). Play and Reality, one of his well known books, is improved version of his paper Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena (1951), which discusses the importance of transitional stage in an individuals life, and intense experiences that take place in art, religion and fantasy world. Lastly, Winnicott refers to this book the most (Winnicott, 1971, p.15). When Winnicotts differentiation from Klein observed, one can assume that this process is Winnicotts transitional phenomena from his supervisor to become an independent theorist. Brief summary of the book Part One: Papers on Development Winnicott starts off the book from collection of papers on development. First, he explains the importance of the psycho-analysis and sense of guilt by stating A psycho-analyst comes to the subject of guilt as one who is in the habit of thinking in terms of growth, in terms of the evolution of the human individual, the individual emotional growth (Winnicott, 1965, p.15). Afterwards, Winnicott continues stating by sense of guilt is visible when the child enters to Oedipal Stage, since unconsciously the child is wishing his/her same sex parent to disappear and accordingly feelings of love and hate rises in this stage. After this stage, child enters to Superego and ego comes in terms with the superego, leaving anxiety to mature into guilt. Winnicott states that at this stage, child would feel sense of guilt related to masturbation. He continues by describing the individuals who acquired guilt feeling might suffer from melancholia and obsessional neurosis. The origin of guilt feeling aris es from Oedipus complex, when the child starts to experience three way relationship (mother, father and child). Next, Winnicott continues with the term capacity to be alone which is highly related with emotional development of an individual. It is basically experience of being alone in presence of another person, which helps children to build up his/her ego and contributes to build individuals personality. Winnicott includes the importance of parent and child relationship by defining the holding environment. The infant is dependent to holding environment where the mother holds the infant physically, emotionally and in her mind. Following the mother and the infant will live together. The child is now a psychosomatic (psyche indwelling in the soma) being on its own. He sees all the objects, including his mother, as outside of himself. At this stage, the childs ego moves on from the state of unintegration to integration and now he has gained the capacity to develop object relations. In other words, he has now passed on from a subjectively designed object to an on objectively perceived object rela tionship, which the infant can live with the father and mother together. Winnicott includes that the infant development should facilitated by good-enough maternal care in order for infant to survive. He continues stating that it can be said that infants ego is weak, however strengthen by his mothers ego. Further on, Winnicott states the importance for child to experience full dependency, relative dependency and independence, in order to integrate the ego. He includes the importance of ego strength that receives ego-support from the mothers adaptive behaviour and love. Accordingly, Winnicott articulates the relation of needs of children to those of infants in health and crisis. Additionally, he points out the importance of the relationship between childcare that is provided by healthcare providers versus natural care that is supplied by the parents. Correspondingly, Winnicott discussed the development of the capacity for concern in children. His statement was concern was assumes to belong to the stage that is prior to Oedipus complex. The capacity for concern was part of two body relationship, between the mother and the infant. In order the infant to experience guilt or hold it in full expectation of an opportunity to reparation, he needs to develop capacity for concern. Following this paper, Winnicott discussed infants growth from dependence towards independence. There are three categories in this issue. The first one is absolute dependence, which is the early stage of emotional development. The infant is dependent on the mothers womb and care from the beginning. In this section Winnicott states that This term maturational process refers to evolution of the ego and of the self, and includes the whole story of the id, of instincts and their vicissitudes, and of defences in the ego relative to instinct (Winnicott, 1965). In this state, the mothers go through a phase called primary maternal preoccupation where the mothers are preoccupied with the care of their baby starting from the last few weeks of pregnancy and couple of weeks after the birth. Their babies seem part of them and they are identified with the baby. Accordingly, the mothers know how their baby feels like or what their baby needs. In this situation, the mother herself is dependent. The n ext step is relative dependence where the infant is aware of the presence of dependence. In order to explain this phase, Winnicott stated that when the mother is away for a moment beyond the time-span of his (or her) capacity to believe in her survival, anxiety appears, and this is the first sign that the infant knows. The last step is infants journey to towards independence. Once the child passed the both phases normally, he/she will become eligible to meet with world and its hardships, since he/she will be able to observe what is already present in his(her own self. Lastly, this stage explains the attempts of the toddler child and of the child at puberty. Part Two: Theory and Technique In the second part Winnicott, dedicated himself informing the readers about the theories of child psychology and the techniques that is used in child psychoanalysis. Winnicott starts with contributions of direct child observation to psycho-analysis. According to Winnicotts direct observation, the baby must have a physical and psychological maturity in order to have a full emotional development. When these phenomena take place in psychoanalysis the analyst cannot date when it occurred. However, the analyst will be able to describe to patients early infancy. Furthermore, infants play become acknowledge in process of analysis. Play includes the personal growth of through imagination. Winnicotts foremost crucial theory is transitional object and phenomena. In this phase, the normal developing baby adopts a piece of cloth or a teddy bear. For a while the child will subject this object to himself; he will carry it with him all the time and wants to have full possession of the object. Therefore, according to Winnicott, starting from infancy, the mother should tolerate and allow the baby to besmear this object, to harm it, to ruin it. If the mother is wa shing this object, or cleaning it, or mending it or sewing it, she is breaking up and destroying something. What the mother is destroying is the meaning the baby attaches to the object and to what she is doing to the object. Winnicott explains that concentration of environmental phenomena in which crystallizes out a person (p.138), a mother, and within the mother the infant constitutes as anatomically and physically, later on at the birth date, the infant becomes a female or male individual. Winnicott states that there is no such thing as a newborn on its own, what you can see is the mother baby unity; which is called nursing couple. Where you find a baby you will find maternal care. At the beginning the baby exists only by means of the maternal care with whom the baby forms a whole. This care period is before the verbal period. The baby does not talk, in this period which is prior to presenting the baby with word symbols, the relationship between the mother and the baby is a maternal empathy. The baby is completely dependent and with what he receives from this dependency his ego develops and he paves the way for the construction of a separate self. When assumed that the development progressed normally w ith good enough initiation, true self operates steady and protects the being from the false self. False self is described as the breakdown of the childs illusion of omnipotence by the mothers non-empathetic replies at early period results in serious psychopathological consequences. A child in such a situation will gradually develop a false self. He will give up his needs and demands and will quickly try to form himself according to the demands and expectations of the mother or others. He will observe himself and his surroundings all the time and trying to assess reality, he will be inclined to present a superficial concordance. The real self which has not developed, will be enveloped, encapsulated and hidden by false self. Real self is the source of needs and expressions itself. False self, on the other hand, is a continuous activity in order to create the positive surroundings the environment has not provided one with. In analysis of a false personality, Winnicott describes, the fact must be recognized that the analyst can only talk to the False Self of the patient about the pat ients True Self (Winnicott, 1965, p.151). He continues stating that in point of transition, the analyst and the patient should be in extreme dependence, when the analyst starts to get into contact with the True Self. Winnicott discusses the importance of counter-transference within the therapy. Additionally, he stated the aim of psycho-analytical treatment is keeping alive, well, and awake. It is crucial to be aware of what, when, and how the patient states the certain statement or releases the emotion. Following, Winnicott discusses how to train for child psychiatry, since it is a different field than psychiatry that is applied to adults. Child psychiatry is involved with the emotional growth of the individual child and his/her maturational processes which is provided by his/her environment and the issues that derives from child him/herself. Accordingly, child psychiatry requires additional education of type which is provided by Psycho-Analysis and Analytical Psychology. Winnicott continues by stating the importance of psychotherapy of character disorders and he elaborates by discussing them in terms of maturational processes. Lastly, he concludes by stating the importance of dependence in infant-care, in child-care, and the psycho-analytic setting. The Critique of the book When the main issue is the maturational process, it is crucial to acknowledge Freuds theory since almost all of the theories stemmed from it. According to Freud, in infancy and childhood, the individuals anticipated concern is survival issues, which are experienced through nursing and the mothers activities with infants body, following infants fantasies about birth and death. Also, the infant will experience these issues through the sexual bond with its parents. Later on the infant will experience, pleasure principle where he/she demands all of his/her needs to be accomplished immediately (id). With reality principle, the infant realizes some gratifications are that problematic, however the infant will realize it is worth to wait for them (ego) (McWilliams, 1994; Mitchell Black, 1995). Freuds drive theory states that the child will go through psychosexual stages of oral, anal, phallic and latency stage (where superego develops). Therewithal, Winnicott values the theories of Freud an d based the fundamental of his theories from his. However, Freud states that patients problems stems from secrets, gaps in memory, while Winnicott believes that the patient is shaping and molding the analytic situation to provide the environmental features missed in childhood (Mitchell Black, 1995, 133-134). According to my observation, even though Winnicott had developed a different style of maturational processes than Freuds, still he based his ideas on his drive theory. Freuds maturational processes of emotional development reciprocate my idea of maturation, since the stages are apprised when the children are observed from the frame of drive theory. Accordingly, I believe that Winnicotts stages of theory builds up on Freuds maturational stages with addition of mother-infant relationship reinforcement. The dedicated theorists, Klein and Anna Freud, had different theories which concerned technical problems with regard to analyzing. Klein believed that children were analysable as long as their play was interpreted, while Anna Freud argued that small children are not analysable since they have weak ego and they cannot handle interpretations. (Mitchell Black, 1995). Klein s play technique of child analysis, which the child is offered with simple toys that represents his fantasy life (Klein, 1975). On the other hand A.Freud states that since Superego is the heir of the Oedipus Complex, the pre-oedipal child will be unable to obtain internal controls of his own erotic and aggressive impulses. Even though, Winnicott was influenced by Kleins theory, he still acknowledged A.Freuds view of giving importance of the childs actual parents. On the other hand, Klein was insufficiently respectful of the role of parents and concentrated on childs internal world of fantasy to the exclusion of exter nal factors (Phillips, 1988). However, Winnicotts benefaction to psychoanalytic theory was formulated to re-introduce the importance of the real mother in development. He gives the mother a relatively passive role, at least from the infants point of view (Katz, 1996). Winnicott believes that there is not only an infant there is a nursing couple between mother and the infant. When I think of these theories, I also, believe psychoanalysis cannot be applied to the children. I support Kleins the play technique, however I believe that children are not ready to hear the interpretations, since they have not accomplished all of the developmental stages as A.Freud stated. Additionally, I disagree with Kleins point of view of excluding parents, when working with children. Since the care of the mother and the environment is crucial in childrens development, I think parents contribution to the therapy session will be meaningful as Winnicott stated. Stern disagrees on the existence of developmental stages as other theorists do. Stern makes an attempt to free infancy and psychoanalysis from predisposition of adult psychopathology. His position is that the infants from the start mainly experience the reality and their subjective experiences without suffering distortion or defences (Downey, 1988). In contrary of Winnicotts developmental stages, Stern uses for senses of self, which are emergent self, the core self, the subjective self and the verbal self. According to Erten (2010), Stern emphasizes the importance of sense of subjective self as the crucial steps of development of the child. Erten states that, according to Stern I think, Stern was influenced by Winnicotts theory of mother-infant relationship and applied to his own theory. In Sterns system the mother and the infant are in a dual relationship, in other words in sync. Stern (1985), and A. Freud (1965) were influenced by Winnicot (1971)s transitional object and phenomenon by describing the importance of having a soft substance in process of differentiating from the mother. However, Sterns view on this phenomenon is different than Winnicotts. Winnicott believes that it is crucial for child to be left alone with the transitional object whereas Stern states it is normal for mother to enter infants play in this stage is normal and she should encourage the infant play with the transitional object. Once the infant gets acquainted with the toy, he/she should be left alone. He states that it is beneficial for development of self-regulation (Stern, 1985). Additionally, Erten (2010) includes that the child will start to take a journey from his inner world to external world as he will travel from subjectivity to objectivity. I think that Winnicotts opinion seems more logical, since the transitional object should be an object that will help the child to differ entiate from his mother in order to take steps in the journey of becoming an individual. I think that transitional object would replace the pleasure that the child is receiving from the mother until the child gets acquainted to his new situation. Erten (2010) within Winnicotts holding theory; the environmental mother will witness the child, through out his development by holding the child mentally. The mother will stand besides her childs existence and will have an optimal dance with her child. By optimal dance, Winnicott meant that the mother will stand by her childs side, while not abusing her childs existence by interrupting him. In another words, the child should live his loneliness in presence of his mother. In my opinion, this optimal dance is similar to Sterns idea of affect attunement. Affect attunement is described below: When the infant is around nine months old, however, one begins to see the mother add a new dimension to her imitation-like behavior, a dimension that appears to be geared to the infants new status as a potentially intersubjective partner. (It is not clear how mothers know this change has occurred in the infant; it seems to be part of their intuitive parental sense.) She begins to expand her behavior beyond true imitation into a new category of behavior we will call affect attunement (Stern, 1985, p. 140). In Sterns theory, the mother follows the affect and behavior of her child in a compatible manner, while in Winnicotts theory, the mother watches over her child without interrupting his being but still keeping a compatible manner mentally. Additionally, Erten (2010) was able relate Winnicotts concept of capacity to be alone with Bowlbys attachment theory. He stated that the individual can form relationship which is free from separation anxiety, if he/she was able to securely attach to his mother in infancy stage. Erten continues by stating the infant who formed insecure attachment will be alone in both cases of when the mother departures (the baby is left alone) and when the mother arrives since he/she ignores the arrival of the mother due to her departure. The reason is as the object leaves (the mother), the baby feels abandoned in his/her subjective world and the anxiety will be stimulated according to frequency of mothers departure. I strongly agree with Winnicotts and Ertens statements since the concept of capacity to be alone is also a way for child to relax in his own time. Accordingly, I believe that the child will learn to soothe himself without requiring someones attention. Conclusion In the book, The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment: Studies in the Theory of Emotional Development, Winnicott informs the readers about the developmental theory ranging from early childhood to adolescence, while he explains the crucial theories that contribute the emotional development of the individual. He concludes the collection by narrating the differences between child and adult psychiatry styles, while he states the possible psychiatric disorders that might stem from infantile maturational processes. The book consisted from the collection of Winnicotts various papers. Winnicott, a former Kleinian, began to separate from Klein as he started to form his own theory by observing infant-mother relationship. By focusing on this two-body relationship and basing on Sigmund Freuds drive theory and nourishing his theories from Kleins and A.Freuds opinions, Winnicott formed different and useful theories about emotional development of individual. Unlike other theorists, Winnicott begins his theory starting from pregnancy period, when the baby is in the womb, instead of starting from the birth. He values the first relationship of mother-infant, the dependency period, immensely. Winnicott, rarely mentions the fathers role in his theories. Winnicott, also, emulates infant-mother relationship with patient-therapist relationship. When it is considered, the concepts that he mentioned can be visible in therapeutic session. Such as, the patients prefer to have capacity to be alone and experience going on being state by being silent in the therapy room. On the other hand, the therapist maintains a holding environment by not interrupting the patient, by being by his side. Finally, Winnicotts current book of collection is a well rounded, detailed book which captures the reader and provokes spirit as the reader dives into the book. The new students of psychoanalysis and pupils who wants to be psychotherapist must read this book in order to apprehend the full journey of individuals maturational processes.

William Sherman :: essays research papers

William Sherman How would you feel if your brother came into your room and transformed it into a junkyard? You would probably have the same feelings of the civilians in Georgia when William Sherman came across their land. William Sherman was hated by most Southerners and favored by many generals from the North because if his brilliant war tactic. William Sherman was born on May 8, 1820 in Lancaster, Ohio. But according to the American History Encyclopedia, he was born on February 8 of that year. His father died when he was child, and his mother couldn’t afford to raise him so she sent him to be raised by Thomas Ewing, his father’s friend. He soon married Mr. Ewing’s daughter, Ellan. William Sherman attended the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, and graduated 6th in his class in 1840. During the Mexican War, he was an unpopular soldier in California because he had little combat experiences. He resigned from the army in September 6, 1853, and became partner in a banking firm in San Francisco and New York. Years before the Civil War started, William Sherman was superintendent of the Louisiana State Seminary and Military Academy at Alexandria; which later was moved and renamed to Louisiana State University (LSU). When the war broke out, Sherman felt adverse with the newspapermen in Louisiana, so he moved b ack to his hometown for two months. His family then migrated to St. Louis, Missouri where he was elected president of the Fifth Street Railroad. On his forty-first birthday, Sherman wrote to the Union Secretary of War offering his service in the military for three years. On June 20, 1861, he joined Mc. Dowel’s army and fought in the First Battle of Bull Run, the first battle in which the Union lost to the Confederate. In August of 1861, William Sherman was promoted to Brigadier General and was elected by General Robert Anderson to defend Fort Sumter. A month later, Sherman told the Secretary of War, Cameron, that if he had 60,000 men he would drive the enemy out of Kentucky and if he had 200,000 men he would finish the war in that section. Many newspaper writers humiliated William Sherman because Cameron returned to Washington and reported that Sherman required 200,000 men. Sherman didn’t get a large number of army as he wished, but he was placed command of the Fifth Division, which was an average size army seizing Tennessee.

Participation in Unit Discussion Boards for Academic Purposes Essay

Technology has currently changed the way people live in that it has made living and communicating easier for them. One of the most significant contributions that technology has given is the Internet. It has allowed people from all over the globe to communicate without the use of wires and without having to exert too much effort. More importantly, it has improved the way academic institutions provide education to their students. The Internet has given way for â€Å"virtual universities,† which â€Å"exists in the digital reality of the Internet, although it would also need to have extensions in physical reality for assessment purposes, which could provide optional experiences in situated learning† (Tiffin & Rajasingham, 2003, p. 136). There are numerous ways on how students and instructors communicate to make distance-learning work. These would include electronic mail, instant messaging, live teleconferencing, specific platforms designed for educational purposes, and discussion boards. Tools like these make it possible for students and teachers to exchange information even if they are miles apart. It gives them the capability to be flexible in terms of their schedule and workload. It also lessens the cost that they have to shoulder for their education compared to that of traditional education because they do not have to spend money on commuting to and from the university’s campus. â€Å"The promise of the Internet for education was the interactivity of the medium that allowed the students to interact and actively participate in any learning process† (Shimojo, Ischii, Ling, & Song, 2005, p. 87). As mentioned earlier, one of the tools that virtual classrooms use is the discussion board, which is an â€Å"asynchronous communication tool that allows one individual to post a comment or question online. Other individuals who are members of the same discussion board may read that comment/question, and respond with their own remarks over time† (Virginia Tech, n. d. ). Only students and their instructors have access to this site. Instructors may create the discussion boards for their overall course or for a certain topic so that the students are able to communicate and share information in a place where posts are organized and can be tracked and monitored. Discussion boards are beneficial to both students and teachers because it allows them to discuss topics more extensively through the aid of the Internet. It would also extend and maximize the time that they need to talk about their lessons and other concerns, as class time is sometimes not enough to cover everything. Discussion boards provide the opportunity for every student to participate actively in the discussion with the chance of receiving comment and feedbacks not only from the instructor but also from the other students. Most of all, discussion boards can be constantly accessed and has the ability to store conversations as is, unless it is deleted by the moderator or instructor who controls the board most of the time. However, because discussion boards are powered by the Internet and technology, it also has its limitations. Although this rarely happens nowadays, power failure can limit the students and teachers’ capabilities of interacting through the discussion board. Also, students who do not own a personal computer of their own might find it difficult to join in the discussion on a regular basis. There are also those who are afraid of using technology and will rather communicate personally than use the Internet. Students may also fear miscommunication and misunderstanding, which would lead to conflicts either with other students or with their instructors. â€Å"Misinterpretations may go unresolved or may take several communications before they are resolved† (French, French, Hale, Johnson, & Farr, 1999, p. 145). As such, students might not fully appreciate discussion boards and will ultimately have a negative effect on their learning. If students choose other Internet-based educational tools over the discussion board, they may not be able to maximize the full potential that virtual classrooms or universities can offer. Although they would still be able to communicate and interact through other means, they would not have the comfort of having their messages and posts arranged chronologically and stored in a safe place over a period of time. Not participating in a discussion board would also mean that the students and teachers would have to wait for the class to virtually meet again to discuss their concerns further. However, this would take up the actual class time and some instructors would choose to teach than discuss concerns, which means that students may not be able to talk about other things and interact with each other. Active participation and support for discussion boards, therefore, are needed for virtual classrooms to be effective. They can be encouraged through incentives like a reward for having the best post or comment in the discussion. Instructors should also think of interesting topics to discuss so that the students do not get bored and opt to stay out of the interaction. Also, instructors should require their students to regularly post content and comment on other people’s work. Indeed, technology has proven to be one of best innovation that man has ever seen. This is especially appreciated in the field of education because it has allowed people to receive education even at the comfort of their homes. It has allowed people from different countries of different backgrounds to share information and knowledge with each other. Classes are not limited to their schedules because students can still discuss their concerns over the Internet even after class hours. Different tools are provided to students to maximize their learning process. Discussion boards should be supported and used because it is one of the best Internet-based educational tools that they can use in virtual classrooms. References French, D. , French, H. , Hale, C. , Johnson, C. , & Farr, G. (1999). Internet Based Learning. Virginia: Stylus Publishing, LLC. Shimojo, S. , Ischii, S. , Ling, T. W. , & Song, K. (2005). Web and Communication Technologies and Internet-Related Social Issues. New York: Birkhauser. Tiffin, J. & Rajasingham, L. (2003). The Global Virtual University. New York: RoutledgeFalmer. Virginia Tech. (n. d. ). Discussion Boards. Retrieved February 17, 2009, from http://www. edtech. vt. edu/edtech/id/ocs/discuss. html

Meaning of Mae in Japanese

Mae is a Japanese word that means the front, or presence. Learn more about its meanings and usage in the Japanese language below. Pronunciation Click here to listen to the audio file. Meaning the front; presence; ago; before Japanese Characters å‰  (㠁 ¾Ã£ Ë†) Example Translation Sono hanashi wa mae nimo kiita yo!㠁 Ã£  ®Ã¨ © ±Ã£  ¯Ã¥â€° Ã£  «Ã£â€šâ€šÃ¨ Å¾Ã£ â€žÃ£ Å¸Ã£â€šË†Ã£â‚¬â€š or in English: I heard the story before!